A New Experience for the Adventurous Neuroscientist

In anticipation of Halloween, today's article is about an unusual type of meal.

When I heard that the MedNeuro newsletter was doing an issue on food and the brain, I naturally jumped at the chance to write an article. The excitement! The fun! The opportunity to explore a new frontier… in culinary arts. Yes, dear reader, this is an article all about cooking and eating brains.

But Are Brains Edible?
The short answer is “of course”! Like almost every other part of the body, the brain and spinal cord may be used from an animal to prepare various dishes. In fact, brain consumption in one form or another is practiced by groups worldwide. In Western Europe and North America, brain consumption is decreasing, as more desirable cuts of meat become more widespread and affordable. While you may not be able to find brain at the local Lidl or Netto, specialty butchers in Berlin will occasionally have calf brains for sale. Elsewhere in the world, brain still forms an important part of a traditional diet. For example, in Mexico, one can sometimes find “tacos de sesos”, while in parts of Indonesia, “gulai otak” (beef brain curry) is very popular.

Photo Giddy, "Brain Candy"

But Are Brains Safe to Eat?
In addition to changing demand for more “user-friendly” types of meat, brain consumption has decreased to concerns about its safety. Most readers are probably familiar with the string of deaths linked to Mad Cow (aka Creutzfeld-Jakob) Disease in the mid-1990s. This condition is still poorly understood, but is believed to stem from proliferation of prions in the brains and spinal cords of cattle that were fed remnants of other animals who died of the disease [1]. Humans who also ate meat from these animals became ill with neurological symptoms, and then swiftly died of generalized brain atrophy. Since the time of the first outbreak, most governments have taken aggressive steps to curtail the use of cattle byproducts as livestock feed, but cases still occasionally pop up every few years.

Consider yourself warned

 By and large, consumption of brain in Europe and North America should be relatively safe.
Another question of brain safety is worth mentioning, though is quite unlikely to apply to most would-be brain consumers: In the 1950s, a strange neurological disease was first noticed among the Fore region of Papua New Guinea. Eventually, the disease later christened “Kuru” was traced to practices of mortuary cannibalism, where family members of a recently deceased person would consume their remains in a gesture of respect. It was later determined to be another form of prion spongiform encephalopathy, much like Creutzfeld-Jakob [1]. These days, outbreaks are much more rare, but due to a long incubation period (2-20 years), cases still pop up [2]. So in case you are considering trying out human brain, consider yourself warned…

But Are They Good for You?
Ironically, brains are probably most dangerous in terms of their nutritional content. As any good neuroscientist knows, a good deal of the brain is formed by fatty myelin-covered axons. Thus, with small differences across species and methods of brain preparation, brain is extremely high in fat and cholesterol! For example, a serving of “pork brains in milk gravy” contains an estimated 1170% of daily-recommended cholesterol intake [3]! On the other hand, brains are also rich in omega fatty acids such as DHA [4]. All of this really takes “brain food” (see"The ABCs of Brain Foods - How to Eat Smart") to a whole new level.

Brain is extremely high in fat

But Are They Tasty?
The most important question of all! Although I’ve eaten some pretty “interesting” dishes in my life, I can’t say that I’ve ever (knowingly) tried brain. I’m a vegetarian, but I’m also quite curious. Hmmm… Perhaps the best thing to do is leave this here for exploratory purposes:

Swabian Brain Soup (Schwaebische Hirnsuppe)

  (adapted from http://eatsmarter.de/rezepte/schwaebische-hirnsuppe)

Please note: The editors of the MedNeuro newsletter hold no responsibility for the safety, nutritional value, or tastiness of the following recipe suggestion!

Ingredients:

• 1 onion
• 2 tbs butter
• 2 tbs flour
• 750 ml water or beef stock
• 1 tsp salt
• 0.5 tsp grated nutmeg
• 125 ml milk or cream
• 2 tbs chopped parsley or chives
• 1 egg yolk
• 1 veal brain

Instructions:

1. Rinse brain with hot water to remove blood and other connective tissue. Chop into small cubes.
2. Peel and chop the onion. Saute with butter until golden-brown in a large pot and stir in flour. Pour in water/stock and simmer for 40 minutes. Add salt, nutmeg, and brain, and simmer for a further 10 minutes.
3. Finally, add milk/cream, parsley/chives, and stir in the egg yolk. Serve soup hot with crusty bread.

Guten Appetit, and let us know how it goes!

[1] Wadsworth et al, PNAS, 2008
[2] Collinge et al, Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, 2008
[3] http://bit.ly/1g5qTPN
[4] http://bit.ly/1CVhbcw

by Constance Holman, PhD student AG Schmitz

This article originally appeared 2015 in CNS Volume 8, Issue 3, Food for Thought. 

Fasting: Cleansing of Spirit and Body?

Let’s face it: we live in a throwaway society and, in our daily lives, the longest period of food withdrawal lasts from dinner to breakfast the next morning. However, back when the word "globalization" did not exist, our ancestors used to undergo alternating periods of overfeeding and starvation, caused by fluctuating weather conditions and food availability. Fasting was a part of life. Nowadays, regular periods of fasting are still practiced around the world, but mainly for traditional, religious, or cultural reasons [1]. But what exactly are the effects of fasting on the brain and is it really healthy to fast? 

Source: Flickr

Fasting Comes in All Shapes and Sizes!
Before getting into the brain facts of fasting, let’s work a bit on terminology. Fasting is defined as abstaining from all kinds of food or drink and can last for short or extended periods of time, typically between 12 hours and 3 weeks [2]. Intermittent fasting is a type of fasting where you cycle between periods of fasting and non-fasting. In addition, fasting can also refer to abstaining only from selected foods, which usually lasts for longer time periods. On the other hand, starvation is defined as chronic nutritional insufficiency and although it is sometimes used synonymously for fasting, it generally describes more extreme forms [2].

Fasting: age less and be happier!

One example of short intermittent fasting is Ramadan, one of the best known religious fasting practices. Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar during which Muslims don’t eat or drink from dawn to sunset [3]. Other fasting practices can be observed in several religions and range from abstinence from some or all kinds of food or drinks. Examples are Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement in Judaism, when adults abstain from any food or drink for 24 hours [3], and fasting practices of the Greek Orthodox Christians, who forgo certain foods for a total of 180-200 days each year [4].

Effects on Our Bodies
While the purpose of religious fasting is primarily spiritual, it also has the potential to greatly affect one's physical health [4]. Prolonged fasting is a strong physiological stimulus and initiates a variety of responses in the body. Stunningly, intermittent fasting has been shown to enhance network plasticity, reduce oxidative stress and inflammation in the brain, increase neurotrophic factor availability and enhance stress resistance [2]. It is therefore not surprising that fasting is sometimes used in clinics: physicians monitor patients while they are fasting for periods lasting for one week or longer (usually only consuming water or a very low-calorie diet with less than 200 kcal/day) in order to improve weight management, disease prevention or treatment [2]. Fasting also seems to relieve various form of pain, ranging from non-specific chronic pain and fibromyalgia to migraines [5].

Lifting Up Your Spirits
Even more surprisingly, fasting doesn’t make you grumpy – on the contrary! Several studies have found that prolonged fasting is accompanied by increased alertness, better mood, a subjective feeling of being well and sometimes even euphoria [1]. One explanation for this could be an increase in tryptophan availability and serotonin turnover in the brain and the release of endogenous opioids [5].
Animal and human studies indicate that fasting – when done right, with the supervision of a professional – can have beneficial effects by reducing inflammatory markers and age-associated processes and be useful in the treatment of many different diseases [2].

[1] http://bit.ly/2vBPDqk
[2] http://bit.ly/2tpY7nY
[3] http://bit.ly/2u7PoUh
[4] http://bit.ly/2ua1XQJ
[5] http://bit.ly/2u7XkoT

by Juliane Schiwek, PhD Student AG Eickholt

This article originally appeared September 2017 in CNS Volume 10, Issue 3, Spirituality in Science

The Role of BDNF in the Regulation of Body Weight and Energy Homeostasis

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) has been shown to play a crucial role in the regulation of neuronal development including survival, differentiation, and growth of existing and new neurons [1]. However, BDNF has also been identified as a key component of the hypothalamic pathway that controls body weight and energy homeostasis [2]. 

In the hypothalamus, BDNF mRNA is found in most of its functional units, i.e. paraventricular, arcuate, ventromedial and dorsomedial nuclei as well as the lateral hypothalamic area and the median eminence. Together with the hippocampus, the hypothalamus is the brain structure that contains the highest BDNF mRNA and protein levels. BDNF is largely coexpressed with its tyrosine kinase receptor trkB, suggesting that autocrine or paracrine mechanisms account for the general modality of BDNF action in the CNS (reviewed in [3]).
It has been shown that BDNF levels are low in obese people [4]. Interestingly, on the contrary, it has been found that serum levels of BDNF are significantly increased in obese women and significantly reduced in female patients with anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa compared to age-matched normal control subjects. Since BDNF has been described to exert a satiating effect, this may represent a long-term adaptation to counteract decreased caloric ingestion in anorexic and bulimic individuals or the increased one in obese subjects [5-7]. In humans, obesity and obesity-related symptoms have been associated with functional loss of one copy of the BDNF gene [8] and with a de novo mutation in the BDNF receptor Ntrk2 gene [9].
In animal studies, obese phenotypes are found in Bdnf-heterzygous mice associated with hyperphagia, hyperactivity, hyperleptinemia, hyperinsulinemia, and hyperglycemia [10, 11]. Both central and peripheral administration of BDNF decreases food intake, increases energy expenditure, and leads to weight loss [12, 13]. A recent study suggests that gene transfer of BDNF has a therapeutic efficacy in a mouse model of obesity and diabetes, leading to marked weight loss and alleviation of obesity-associated insulin resistance [14]. Knowledge of the exact molecular mechanisms of how BDNF regulates body weight and energy homeostasis is sparse and must be further elucidated.
 
[1] Hofer and Barde, Nature, 1988
[2] Wisse and Schwartz, Nat Neurosci, 2003
[3] Tapia-Arancibia et al., Front Neuroendocrinol, 2004
[4] Krabbe et al., Diabetologia, 2007
[5] Nakazato et al., Biol Psychiatry, 2003
[6] Montelone et al., Psychosom Med, 2004
[7] Montelone et al., Psychol Med, 2005
[8] Gray et al., Diabetes, 2006
[9] Yeo et al., Nat Neurosci, 2004
[10] Kernie et al., EMBO J, 2000
[11] Rios et al., Mol Endocrinol, 2001
[12] Pelleymounter et al., Exp Neurol, 1995
[13] Bariohay et al., Endocrinology, 2005
[14] Cao et al., Nat Med, 2009

By Charlotte Klein, PhD Student Medical Neurosciences, AG Neural Regeneration and Plasticity  

This article originally appeared December 2012 in "Fat Gut or Fat Brain"

Our Intelligence Depends on Our Weight

The prevalence of obesity (defined as a Body Mass Index equal to or greater than 30) is increasing around the world. Medical doctors and investigators have long wondered if there is a link between obesity and brain disorders. 

Interesting observations were made regarding the age of obesity onset. Higher fetal and postnatal levels of adiposity contribute to better brain development. However, obesity in mid-life - at ages 40-55 - and during late-life - at age 70+ - increases risk for dementia, independent of education, IQ or other factors.
But what are the mechanisms by which obesity influences the brain and cognitive function? Adipose tissue may contribute to cognitive decline in a variety of ways. This may happen indirectly because obesity can cause diabetes or hypertension, leading to cardio- and cerebrovascular diseases that are able to impair cognitive function.

A more direct link is via adipokines. They can cross the blood-brain barrier and cause structural abnormalities, such as increased amounts of white matter. Leptin, produced mainly by adipose tissue, has remarkable effects on neurogenesis, neuroprotection, and regulation of beta-amyloid levels. Hereby, it is able to improve cognition, delay age changes, and optimize learning and memory processes. However, patients with common obesity can not benefit from elevated leptin levels because they show increased leptin resistance. A number of mechanisms, including the leptin-stimulated phosphorylation of Tyr(985) on LRb and the suppressor of cytokine signaling 3, attenuate leptin signaling and promote a cellular leptin resistance in obesity [1]. Another important multifunctional hormone is ghrelin. It is produced in a wide variety of tissues associated with the progression of obesity and metabolic syndrome. Acyl-ghrelin may modulate specific molecular intermediates involved in memory acquisition and consolidation through promotion of synaptic plasticity. In patients with Alzheimer's disease, the ghrelin autocrine/paracrine loop in the temporal lobe was found to be dramatically disrupted [2].

Furthermore, the brain can be susceptible to higher adiposity due to basic underlying differences in the structure and function of the nervous system. Studies using MRI have identified a number of brain regions potentially related to adult human obesity. These are mostly prefrontal areas which are different in gray matter density in obese and lean individuals. Higher BMI has also been related to a higher rate of brain atrophy using serial MRI [3].
It looks like exercise and maintaining a healthy weight are necessary not only to keep ourselves fit, but also to keep our brains functioning well.

[1] Paz-Filho G, Int J Clin Pract, 2010
[2] Gahete M et al., Peptides, 2011
[3] Enzinger C et al., Neurology, 2005

By Natalia Denisova, MSc Student Medical Neurosciences  

Tis article originally appeared December 2012 in Volume 05, Issue 04, Fat Gut or Fat Brain

The Fat Brain or the Fat Gut

Today is world obesity day. While we featured already several articles about obesity (Big, Bigger, Obese), dieting (Dieting and the Brain), other ways to loose weight (HCG Injections for Weight Loss) and ideal nutrition (How to Eat Smart), today's article gives a great introduction about the relationship between the brain and the gut and how  it is associated with obesity
 

Obesity - A Burden to Modern Society
Obesity has become one of the major challenges to human health worldwide, most markedly in industrialized countries. In Germany, about half of the adult population is classified as being overweight or obese, with a higher percentage in males (60 %) than in females (44 %) (GEDA, Robert Koch Institute, 2010). Overweight or obese individuals have a high risk of developing comorbidities, including type II diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and coronary heart disease, the most common cause of premature mortality in the obese population.
Body mass stability largely depends on the perfect coupling between caloric intake and energy expenditure [1]. Obesity is a state in which energy intake chronically exceeds energy expenditure. Even a subtle mismatch (less than 0.5 %) in caloric intake over expenditure is sufficient to cause weight gain [2]. The rising prevalence of obesity is likely due to contemporary environmental and lifestyle factors, such as overconsumption of energy-dense food and reduced requirements for physical activity in comparison with the lifestyle of our hunter-gatherer ancestors.

Who is to Blame?

The Brain and the Egg-and-Chicken Principle
The role of the hypothalamus in the regulation of feeding and energy balance was first highlighted by lesion studies in rodents [3, 4]). This brain area comprises specialized neurons that modulate food intake by acting to either stimulate or -suppress appetite (see article by Charlotte Klein). Because of this, the hypothalamus has been determined as a key component in the regulation of metabolic homeostasis "integrating information regarding the body's internal environment and orchestrating a series of coordinated endocrine, autonomic, and behavioral responses that maintain metabolic homeostasis" [5]. However, while great efforts have been made to understand how the brain controls our desire to feed as well as the processes underlying the balancing of energy intake and expenditure, little is known about how the structure and organization of the hypothalamus are altered by obesity. The question still remains whether obesity is a consequence of hypothalamic dysfunction or if it even causes changes in the functionality of the hypothalamus, as has been observed in rodent studies of obesity.

The Role of the Intestinal Tract
Not only the brain, but also the gut takes part in the regulation of appetite and fat storage. There is a long list of factors that originate from the gastrointestinal system and play a role in the management of energy balance by regulating the satiety feeling and thereby, food intake. The main ones are ghrelin, cholecystokinin, peptide YY, pancreatic peptide, glucagon-like peptide 1, and oxyntomodulin (for reviews [6] and [7]).
But these are not the only 'gut factors' controlling energy homeostasis of our organism. Recently, another key player was added to the regulators of our energetic well-being: the intestinal microbiota. These microorganisms, living in our gastrointestinal tract, have coevolved with their human hosts through ages, becoming important for many processes in the human body (see article by Sophie Schweizer). Actually, one could say, we are more microbes than man, because the number of bacterial cells in our intestines exceeds the number of the human cells in our body. Would you believe that the intestinal bacteria have an estimated mass of 1 to 2 kilogram? [9]
It has been shown in studies in mice and humans that the composition and function of microbiota may play a crucial role in the regulation of fat storage and lipid metabolism (more to be read in the article by Jana Foerster). Commensal microorganisms also seem to play a role in some obesity-related comorbidities, for example type II diabetes. Jens Nielsen, at the METAHIT conference in Paris in 2012, even stated that: "Gut microbiota species abundance is a more accurate predictor of type II diabetes than waist-to hip ratio".
Very interesting data have been produced by studies using germ-free mice (animals raised with zero contact to bacteria, see also article by Katarzyna Winek). These mice are leaner than their wild-type littermates, who have about 40 % more fat tissue. After colonization with bacteria from conventionally raised mice, the previously germ-free animals start to gain weight despite decreasing food consumption [10]!

Then, is it the Microbiota Issue?
It is good to take care of our microbial friends: A recently published Nature paper from the group of Martin Blaser describes how subtherapeutic doses of antibiotics can influence the metabolism. They created an adiposity model by introducing antibiotic low-dose treatment. Investigated animals had changes in their microbiome composition and alterations in many metabolic pathways [11]. Another interesting study showed decreased diversity and overall number of gut microbiota in the populations with a high prevalence of severe obesity and its related diseases. Additionally, the most effective obesity treatment (a surgical intervention by gastric banding, sleeve gastrectomy or gastric by-pass, used only in the most severe cases, i.e. BMI ≥ 40) not only leads to improvement in the inflammatory and hormonal status, but also to changes in the gut microbiome. However, up to now only limited data have been produced [12].

Better be Good to Your Commensal Bacteria!

We may say with certainty that we have not yet unraveled all the connections between the gut, the microbiota and the brain or their particular roles in the pathogenesis of obesity, but understanding this signaling in obesity and associated diseases is of huge importance. Recent discoveries and detailed characteristics of pathways involved in the pathogenesis may lead to more effective therapies with multiple targets. It is probably neither the brain nor the gut alone, but a complex interaction of both to blame for round shapes.


[1] Morton et al., Nature, 2006
[2] Hagan and Niswender, Pediatr Blood Cancer, 2012
[3] Tepperman et al., Yale J Biol Med, 1943
[4] Stellar, Psychol Rev, 1954
[5] Williams et al., Eur J Pharmacol, 2011
[6] Small and Bloom, Trends Endocrinol Metab, 2004
[7] Suzuki et al., Exp Diabetes Res, 2012
[8] Murphy and Bloom, Exp Physiol, 2004
[9] Forsythe and Kunze, Cell Mol Life Sci, 2012
[10] Bäckhed et al., Proc Natl Acad sci U S A, 2004
[11] Cho I et al., Nature, 2012
[12] Aron-Widnewsky et al., Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol, 2012

By Charlotte Klein and Katarzyna Winek, PhD Students Medical Neurosciences  

Tis article originally appeared December 2012 in Volume 05, Issue 04, Fat Gut or Fat Brain

Islam: Spirituality and Mental Health

The World Health Organization defines health as "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being…" [1]. At present, this definition does not include spirituality, though attempts have been made for its inclusion [2]. Studies that show positive effects of mindfulness meditation [3] provide the possibility of it being used as a therapeutic intervention (see also article on page 5). When it comes to mental health, the spiritual philosophy in Islam is often overlooked or not thoroughly delved-into. Islam is mostly taken as a religious dogma comprising of political, religious and legal doctrines without considering its spiritual and moral dimensions [4].

Do We Need Spirituality?
Ibn-e-Hazm (994-1064 AD), a famous Muslim polymath, remarked "I searched for a common goal amongst humankind, to which all would agree to strive for excellence. I have not found anything other than the vanquishing of anxiety" [5].  The decline in mental health has been dramatic in the past few decades, with rates of depression increasing from 1988-2007 in the US [6]. Furthermore, the incidence of suicide has increased almost 40% in the middle-aged population [6]. The results of a cross-cultural study indicated that while wealthy countries may score higher on a happiness scale, they scored lower than poor ones on perceived meaning in life [7].

Islamic prayers as form of spiritual purification

One of the core features of spirituality lies in man’s ability to extract meaning from the world. According to Ibn-e-Hazm, the ephemeral nature of the world drives a person into an existential crisis and the only way to achieve happiness is to return towards God Almighty [4]. In Islamic tradition, spirituality may involve pondering over the ayaat (signs) of the Almighty and getting inspired from them to lead a life of servitude. Signs such as the presence of trees may remind one of the temporary nature of life. The intricate features and behavior of birds and animals may inspire one to marvel over the accuracy, beauty, and wisdom of the creator. However, not all may interpret these signs in a spiritual context.

Imaging Spiritual Prayer
A preliminary study in 2015 attempted to uncover the neurophysiological effects of salah (prayer) [11]. Muslims performing salah and dhikr (remembrance) showed less frontal lobe activity (crucial in executive functioning). The study also compared subjects performing prayer with and without spiritual concentration (khushu). Those performing prayer in a ritualistic manner without a lot of spiritual focus did not display any changes in brain activity, while those performing prayer with more spiritual fervor showed less activity in the frontal lobe and more in the basal ganglia (involved in the reward system) and anterior cingulate gyrus (involved in mood) [11].

"Sabr" and Its Role in Depression
Positive psychology includes studies that correlate self-regulation and gratitude with a lower incidence of mental illness. Dr. Timothy Strauman has suggested clinical depression to be a consequence of self-dysregulation [8]. In Islamic tradition, this practice of self-regulation is called sabr and Ibn al-Qayyim (1292-1350 AD) describes it as restraining and building character [4]. He also argued that the past cannot be changed with sadness, but by contentment, gratitude, patience, and a firm belief that everything that happens occurs due to the will of God [9].
In Islam, there are numerous supplications to ward off anxiety and depression. One factor that might explain the reduction in anxiety and depression experienced by depressed people performing supplications could be due to supplication working as a spiritual therapy. This practice may produce neurochemical alterations that may decrease the need for pharmacological intervention (which does not undermine the efficacy of the latter) [10].

Source

The interesting aspect about supplication or du’aa is that it can be used as a powerful form of psychotherapy. The crux of many supplications is not a request, but rather admitting one’s helplessness and asking for the Almighty’s mercy. Surrendering oneself may offer liberty from the world and its tribulations because the individual leaves the matter in the hands of someone far more powerful than him or her [4].
Many supplications call on to the Almighty by using names and qualities that evoke feelings of awe. According to Jonathan Haidt, the reality of awe involves a two-step cognitive process: vastness (anything experienced by the mind that is larger than one’s self) and accommodation (upon experiencing vastness, the mind adjusts to assimilate new information) [12]. So, experiencing awe by calling on the Almighty provides contentment in times of adversity. Islam envisages trials and tribulations as opportunities for submitting to the Almighty and building character.
In Islam, spirituality is intertwined in different everyday rituals and serves to elevate not only the physical, but also the psychological well-being of an individual [13].

[1] http://bit.ly/2f3Sbe1
[2] Chuengsatiansup, Envir Impact Assessment Rev, 2003
[3] Chiesa and  Serretti,  Psycho Med, 2010
[4] http://bit.ly/2f4epfR
[5] Ibn Ḥazm. Akhlāq wa as-Sīr, p. 76.
[6] Smith, The power of meaning, p. 22.
[7] Oishi and Diener, Psycho Sci, 2013
[8] Strauman, Self and Identity, 2002
[9] Ibn al-Qayyim, Zād al-M’aād, vol 2. p. 325.
[10] Porto et al., J Neuropsychiatry & Clinical Neurosci, 2009
[11] Newberg et al., J Physiology, 2015
[12] Haidt and Keltner, Cognition & Emotion, 2003
[13] http://bit.ly/2hjgViR


By Zara Khan, MSc Student MedNeuro

This article originally appeared September 2017 in CNS Volume 10, Issue 3, Spirituality in Science

Exploring the Mind Through Sacred Plants

In our society, there is amazement surrounding hallucinogens, especially among young people and artists who are curious about mind altering substances. There is a large wave of "psychonauts" that travel far to consume magic mushrooms or other exotic substances; for example, to Latin America, where some of these plants originate, or to countries where consumption is legal (like Uruguay and the Netherlands).

Shamanism Is an Ancient Profession

It is important to underline that in traditional cultures these sacred plants were used for divination and healing purposes. For many indigenous people, psychoactive plants have divine qualities and are used in ceremonies guided by a shaman. A shaman is a practitioner who has expertise with the substance and the wisdom to diagnose and cure soul affections and is believed to have special powers to perceive and interact with the transcendent world [1]. Among such rituals, there are different paradigms: the healer is the one engaging in a trance state to be able to give a diagnosis and apply a remedy. The shaman is the one who guides the persons during the ritual to facilitate self-understanding. The substances might also be consumed during folk religious ceremonies [2]. 

One of the immediate side effects is vomiting, which is believed to aid “purification of the soul”. The desired effect, a spiritual trance, is a complex phenomenon of altered consciousness and usually triggers states of deep introspection and insight. The experience is unique for each consumer but generally depends on the potency of the batch, the setting, the mindset of the user and the culture. The most notable effects are visual alterations that range from seeing visual images and illusions to concrete and substantive hallucinations [3].

source: Wikimedia Commons

The Vine of the Soul

One of the most vastly studied hallucinogens is ayahuasca, a botanical preparation used in healing ceremonies throughout the area of the Amazon in South America. Ayahuasca can be translated from Quechua as “vine of the soul”. The brew includes the ayahuasca vine (Banisteriopsis caapi) containing β-carboline type alkaloids, like harmine and tetrahydroharmine, which are monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors, preventing dopamine breakdown in the synapse; and the chacruna shrub (Psychotria viridis), providing the hallucinogen alkaloid DMT. Sometimes the chacruna shrub is substituted with other plants containing DMT [3, 4]. MAO inhibition and DMT together produce boosted hallucinations, the “magical” effect of this drink [4].

Psychonauts go on trips for ancient plants

There is another important drug for psychonauts: magic mushrooms containing the active compounds of psilocybin, psilocin and baeocystin. They have been part of human culture since prehistoric times (see Image 1). The Aztecs worshiped them to the level that they named them teonanácatl, “the flesh of the god” in nahuatl. The large diversity of mushrooms is used for religious rites by the Mazatec in Oaxaca, Mexico, but also other communities.

The cactus peyote (Lophophora williamsii) was also consumed extensively by the Aztecs, believing it would grant them divine protection and guidance during hunting or warfare. Nowadays, it continues to be used by the Huichol in the desert zone of Real de Catorce in northern Mexico [3]. The members of this tribe depict their ritual gatherings and the hallucinations experienced under the effect of mescaline, the active component of peyote, in extraordinary colorful artistic works (Image 2).

by antefixus21 via flickr 

Where Sacramental Traditions and Neuroscience Meet

Since colonial times, these sacramental plants have largely remained prohibited. However, during the last decades, they have become increasingly known across the Western World, leading to a growing number of research studies that analyze their effects on the brain and their potential clinical value. Now it is known that all these hallucinogenic chemicals have a stereochemical similarity to serotonin. By acting as serotonin receptor agonists, particularly of the frontocortical 5-HT2A subtype [5], they produce alterations of perceptions, mood, and cognition.  

A leading group in this field is the Brazilian team of Dr. Jaime Hallack in the Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo. They have identified promising therapeutic benefits for diseases like depression, anxiety and drug dependence for these substances [6, 7]. Additionally, these medications may have a greater safety profile than regular addictive drugs, an extremely low mortality rate and produce almost no physical dependence [8]. So, if you are a psychonaut or are interested in this topic, keep your eyes wide open, as there is still a great deal to learn from these ancestral sacred plants.

[1] Singh, Behav Brain Sci, 2017 (forthcoming)

[2] Metzner, J Psychoactive Drugs, 1998

[3] Díaz, Phenom Cogn Sci, 2010

[4] Frecska et al., Front Pharmacol, 2016

[5] Dos Santos et al., Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 2016

[6] Dos Santos et al., J Psychopharmacol, 2016

[7] Dos Santos et al., Ther Adv Psychopharmacol, 2016

[8] Winkelman, Curr Drug Abuse Rev, 2014

By Lya Katarina Paas Oliveros, MSc Student MedNeuro

This article originally appeared September 2017 in CNS Volume 10, Issue 3, Spirituality in Science

Psychotropic Substances: An Introductory Journey Through the World of Drugs

Since the beginning of recorded history, people have puzzled about spirituality, and how strong feelings linked to it may be related to forces beyond our control. How can one pin down mystic experience, or life-changing epiphanies? One way is to get down to the nitty-gritty of chemical reactions in the brain. Psychoactive drugs are substances that cause temporary alterations in mood, behavior, perception and consciousness [1]. These substances can be divided according to their origin (synthetic or naturally occurring) and purpose of use, such as medical, recreational or as entheogens for spiritual experiences. 

Drugs affect consciousness differently

The history of psychoactive drugs linked to religious practices use goes back thousands of years to ancient cultures like Mesoamerica or Egypt (see also page 7). Many ancient cultures consumed mostly organic substances for medical purpose, but also in shamanistic rituals to communicate with their gods. Even in some present-day societies, such as some indigenous groups in Mexico or Brazil, this is actively practiced as part of local culture. Throughout history, humans have always been drawn to experimenting with their state of consciousness. This reached a scale that international authorities felt obliged to set up a Convention on Psychotropic Substances, signed by the United Nations in 1971, to rein in the increasing availability of drugs that ‘have negative health effects and lead to lowered moral standards’ [2]. What has changed, however, is people’s motives: as nowadays, people are more likely to use these drugs for fun and improved performance rather than spiritual experience.

Source: Wikipedia Commons

The Pocket Library of Psychoactive Drugs
Whatever the purpose, recreational or religious, the pharmacological effects of psychoactive drugs (and, as a consequence, what they are primarily used for) can vary widely. Below is a concise table of some of the most important substances and their mode of action [2]. It should be noted that the listed licit and illicit drugs often have multiple biological effects, including side effects, which also depend on their dosage.



Moral Remarks
Dr. Timothy Leary, a former leading proponent of hallucinogen use, postulated a theory in the 1960s based on personal experiences [3], in which he stated that the effect of a psychotropic substance on an individual is influenced by the chemical and pharmacological nature of the drug, but also by the individual’s psychological and physical settings. Probably, however, the dose has the strongest influence, as some substances are pleasurable and beneficial when consumed in small doses, but turn into harmful or even fatal substances in higher doses, which applies even to inconspicuous substances like the 'laughing gas'. Interestingly, this was already hypothesized nearly 500 years ago, when Paracelsus said: "sola dosis facit venenum" ("The dose makes the poison.") [4].



[1] http://bit.ly/2sQmE25
[2] http://bit.ly/2sFAVjn
[3] Leary, Universe Books, Inc., New York 1964
[4] Paracelsus, Septem Defensionenes, 1538

By Anahita Poshtiban, PhD Student AG Plested
 

This article originally appeared September 2017 in CNS Volume 10, Issue 3, Spirituality in Science