Where Faith Meets Science: How Neuroscientists Relate to Religion

...this is the name of a post from Mayim Bialik [1], whom many of you know as Amy Farrah-Fowler in the TV series "The Big Bang Theory". It describes two topics that wouldn’t go together for many neuroscientists. Or would they? Are religion and neuroscience (any science, in fact) really that incompatible?

As scientists we try to deduce our knowledge from well-planned experiments and believe what we can see with our own eyes, or through the microscope. A religious person believes in the relation of humanity to the transcendental. On first sight it seems as if these are two contradictory paradigms since there seems to be no experimental evidence for the transcendent (yet), but nevertheless 51% of biological and medical scientists in the U.S. believe in either God or a universal spirit or higher power, according to a Pew Research Center survey in 2009 [2]. Therefore, religion apparently has an influence on today’s scientists and conceivably on their research.

Religious and a Scientist?
Dr. Andrew Newberg, for instance, uses neuroscientific methods to investigate religious and spiritual experiences, pioneering the field of neurotheology (see also article on page 10). Studying the connection between neuroscience and religion, he came to the conclusion that "whether or not God exists out there" is something that neuroscience cannot answer [3]. Dr. Mario Beauregard is another scientist who deals with the existence of a soul. In his book "The Spiritual Brain", he argues in favor of a reality outside the brain that people actually sense during intense spiritual experiences [4].
However, Dr. Michael Graziano, professor of Psychology and Neuroscience at Princeton University, focusing on the brain basis of awareness, likes to describe spiritualism as a fundamental mode of perception by which humans relate to the world. The perceptual world that emerges from that theory is to him not contradicting or threatening science, but a psychological phenomenon that is of high importance to the human existence [5]. Taking this into consideration, the idea of bringing together the world of religion and neuroscience in a single person's belief system does not seem to be impossible anymore.

NEUROSCIENCE CAN’T ANSWER IF GOD EXISTS

 
For Dr. Mayim Bialik, a former neuroscientist from UCLA and reformed-turned-orthodox member of the Jewish faith, working in neuroscience has even deepened her belief in a divine plan for the universe. Importantly, God to her is not an old man in the sky, fulfilling one's wishes if you pray hard enough, but rather "the force in the Universe that drives all of the phenomena that we experience as human beings“. Mayim explains that "understanding the relationship between science and God makes [her] a better scientist and a more complete person." When reading her post "Where faith meets science" you immediately recognize that for her, being religious doesn’t mean regarding the Torah as a science book. Instead, it signifies being grateful and humble in the face of how amazing our universe is, how amazing we are and how amazing our brains are [1].

Two Sides of the Same Coin
All these people seem to tell a story: the story of "Oneness". Even though religion and science seem to be different concepts, they might have more in common than we think. If we regard both as the quest for a description of the same entity, namely the universe and everything in it, then bringing them together could be a really interesting experiment worth trying.
Many great scientists throughout history seemed to be inspired by religiousness in the broadest sense. To quote Albert Einstein: "veneration for this force beyond anything that we can comprehend is my religion" [6]. In a letter to Maurice Solovine in 1951, he wrote "whenever this feeling is absent, science degenerates into uninspired empiricism".
With all this in mind, we should put the relationship between religion and science to the test with skeptic but open reasoning!

[1] http://bit.ly/1LvV5Oi
[2] http://bit.ly/2ttD7sj
[3] http://bit.ly/2uZngpY
[4] http://bit.ly/2uQ5kgF
[5] http://bit.ly/2eHtmEl
[6] Kessler, The Diary of a Cosmopolitan, 1971

by Annika Stefanie Reinhold, MSc Student MedNeuro
This article originally appeared 2017 in CNS Volume 10, Issue 3, Spirituality in Science

Faith and Perspective: an Interview With Three Berlin Neuroscientists

With the upcoming holidays in mind, we are talking about faith and  being a scientist in today's post. Recently, we sat down for a chat with three researchers of the Neuroscience community in Berlin, the topic ranging from juggling neuroscience and faith to common misconceptions about religion. Here’s what they had to say.

Could you please tell us a little about your faith?
I am a Christian, as were my parents. When I was in grade 12, I accepted Jesus Christ as my personal savior and converted to Evangelical Christianity. And I would say during my stay in the university, I came much closer to God. I started seeking him with all my heart; the more I know Him, the more I reflect His character: love and kindness.

I'm basically born into a Hindu family. I have been practicing Hinduism since childhood. During the course of my studies and my PhD in neuroscience, I have started to question both religion and science – specifically whether either of them can fully answer questions on consciousness.

I was born in a Muslim family and had the privilege of having parents that loved to read and had a large collection of books on religion (mainly Islamic) as well as comparative religion-oriented. They encouraged me to read and I spent a great deal of time combing through books at my home. During my childhood, much like other kids, I practiced religion more out of watching what my parents and grandparents did. As a teenager, I became more inquisitive, and started practicing my religion with more reason, intent, and curiosity.

How does your faith help or influence you as a neuroscientist?
My faith shapes every part of my life, and everything I do is based on principles from the Bible. For example, I am faithful – faithful to God, faithful to the people standing next to me in the lab, faithful in everything that I do. I believe that God is watching, hence, I do whatever I do with all my heart. And I consider the opportunities I have got as an immense privilege that I should nurture and care for. Besides, living in harmony with God lets me have internal peace and keep me secure no matter what happens around.

The concept of Hinduism urges one to ask questions about one's inner self/consciousness (also known as Advaita philosophy) which helps me as a neuroscientist to shape and ask questions about workings of the brain leading to conscious behavior.

In our holy book, the Quran, there are hundreds of verses which encourage us to study and ponder. In fact, in the very first verse, where the truth about Allah is revealed to the prophet Muhammad, the first divine command is “Read!”. A quest for knowledge is thus one of the most important pursuits that one can have in life. Many people in different religions are taught that they cannot contest what is written or preached, but I believe that Islam teaches us always to be skeptical and build strong counterarguments, or put things to the test. Using this type of reasoning is extremely important for me as a neuroscientist. Furthermore, Islam teaches us that we should gain our livelihood through righteous means. That means if you happen to be a researcher, do research with a purpose and rationale behind it. We are held accountable after death for how we used our health, knowledge and time during life. Therefore, whatever we do has to be legitimate and meaningful. So, in that sense, faith definitely influences neuroscience in that it gives me a purpose behind the daily struggles of research because I know that even if I fail, I learn a lot more and that all these efforts are not futile.

What do you believe your faith can teach you about neuroscience?
I know that God has placed eternity in our heart and mindset to seek and explore what has been done under heaven. But, there are questions that science is not able to answer; about creation and existence, purpose of life, etc. People might seek and try lots of things, but there is always a void inside our heart that God can only fill. The Bible teaches us that we were uniquely, fearfully, and wonderfully created as part of a perfect system. It is fascinating to see how the universe operates by itself. Hence, being a scientist (as well as a Christian) gives me great appreciation for how intricate biological systems are perfectly made, and work together in harmony. And this makes me wonder how one can perceive it as a random event.

Hindu scriptures like Vedas and Upanishads have dealt with mind and brain in depth. For example, there are concepts of divisions of mind like Buddhi (intellect/logical part of brain), Manas (emotional parts) and Indriyas (senses). Furthermore, these texts have a lot of insights on how senses interact with the mind.

The Quran teaches us that our intelligence is what sets us apart from animals – the ability to think and reason. Islam instills in an individual that he or she is so much more than the sum of all their synapses or microbiome. Of course, with great power comes great responsibility – we shouldn’t take it all for granted. Islam thus teaches us that to lead a meaningful life, we need to use our brains!

Has neuroscience changed the way that you see your faith?
If anything, I think it’s the other way around!

Neuroscience has definitely helped me form more solid ideas of mind and brain combining the aspects of mind mentioned in Vedas.

Yes. Science is all about inquiry, and established knowledge changes fast. This has helped me be more enquiring and skeptical about my own faith. In my everyday life, I try to reason with myself a lot about the how’s and why’s of the lifestyle I follow. Neuroscience reinforces this habit.

Has anyone ever challenged you about your faith as a scientist?
Well, I am having discussions with colleagues all the time, and I think sometimes they might get perplexed with my faith. Scientists are always looking for concrete proof, something tangible to prove things about God and the universe. But faith is something that has to be experienced – it’s something that I personally have experienced, and it is something that no one can take away from me. To help you understand, look at the concept of love. It’s something that I (and most other people) have experienced, yet is completely intangible and needs to be felt to be believed. It can’t be measured!

Actually, I never felt a clash between ideas in Hinduism and neuroscience. Hinduism encourages one to seek answers for questions on 'Paramatma' which is the 'Primordial Self'. In my opinion, that is also the ultimate goal of neuroscience – to understand perception and consciousness.

Oh yes, I am challenged all the time! I have lots of friends from different religions, including some who identify as atheists. Discussing religion and science with them is a favorite topic of mine. Having your beliefs questioned is also refreshing in the sense in that it teaches you that beliefs or ideas that form your core personality may not have any significance for others – and that’s ok. Or the fact that one need not believe in a theistic religion to go out and do good in society or some seriously awesome science. I firmly believe that if the Quran is a divine miracle, its prophecies or claims will be testable and could not be falsified. My knowledge regarding both religion and neuroscience is fairly basic but this very reason motivates me to question both and improve my understanding.

Are there any misconceptions that you feel people have about your faith?
The biggest misconception I have faced is ‘faith and science are considered incompatible’. When I tell people I am a Christian, I have been asked how do you believe and be a scientist at the same time. With science, I try to understand and discover what is already there. My faith gives me the bigger picture, the purpose for life. Being a Christian is not also having certain religious practices and rituals. Faith is all about having a personal relationship with God. To me, having faith and being a religious person are not the same thing! Religion is something based on rules: do this, don’t do that. To me, being a Christian is personally experiencing God and walking the walk of life with Him through the ups and downs.

Well, it’s not specifically neuroscientific, but whenever I say I'm from India, people ask "are you a vegetarian?". I am actually, but not all Hindus are [laughs]. Some confusion also arises about the number of Gods that we have. Even though we have millions of Gods as a way of placing and expressing faith, we all believe in Paramatma, 'Primordial Self'.

There are two misconceptions that I’ve noticed a lot. First, that Islam hinders scientific progress as it’s just a set of rituals from the 7^th century. This is absurd and any hindrances to science per se are products of people’s actions (combine less education and in depth study of religion + science) rather than their faith. This also extends to people’s take on women and STEM. Despite societal constraints on women in some Muslim countries, there have also been some remarkable outcomes. If you look at countries like Iran or Pakistan, they have some of the highest number of women in STEM professions in the Muslim world. A second big misconception is that Islamic teachings are rigid, set in stone and cannot be challenged. Also not true. In fact, the Quran openly challenges people to bring a counter argument against its verses and claims to promote a lifestyle model that can adapt to the change in time.

What do you think is the most important thing for people to understand about your faith?
Faith and science are not incompatible. It just takes an open heart to experience God like love. It is not something you can validate and understand with logic. It is not rocket science either, if we genuinely and humbly seek God with an open heart, we will find Him. He is not hidden or somewhere far away, He is around revealing himself in one or another way throughout our journey. Believing in Christ gives eternal life, internal peace, meaning to life and a positive way to look at everything. A life worth living is a life with meaning and purpose. God loves you!

 People have thought about understanding the brain since many centuries, which is reflected in the religious scriptures like Vedas. Perhaps one could get answers by reading these scriptures!

As I mentioned before, the concept of skepticism and inquiry is very important. As far as scientific research is concerned, Islam encourages people to do that as it may be one way of recognizing the common design involved behind the universe and the man. For modern day issues like organ-donation and blood transfusion for instance, it encourages ‘’ijtihad’’ (thorough exertion of a jurist's mental faculty in finding a solution to a legal question). Finally, Islam stresses that acquiring knowledge and then having the wisdom to act on that knowledge is what makes us distinct from our relatives in the animal kingdom. In the Quran, the reader is warned that not acting on acquired wisdom (be it through religious books or years spent in scientific training) will demote the status of its believers. Herein lies the key problem, and the majority of Muslims who passively follow Islam like a religion of rituals and obligations don’t bother to treat it as an all-encompassing lifestyle that could be so much more beyond prayer and supplications. Believing in Quran and its writer (the Almighty) do not automatically entitle anyone to any kind of superiority (religious or educational) over others who don’t. Success in any walk of life is guaranteed to those who work hard for it.

A big thank you to all interviewees!

Content has been edited lightly for clarity and length with participants’ permission.

by Constance Holman, PhD Student AG Schmitz
this article originally appeared 2017 in CNS Volume 10, Issue 3, Spirituality in Science

Islam: Spirituality and Mental Health

The World Health Organization defines health as "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being…" [1]. At present, this definition does not include spirituality, though attempts have been made for its inclusion [2]. Studies that show positive effects of mindfulness meditation [3] provide the possibility of it being used as a therapeutic intervention (see also article on page 5). When it comes to mental health, the spiritual philosophy in Islam is often overlooked or not thoroughly delved-into. Islam is mostly taken as a religious dogma comprising of political, religious and legal doctrines without considering its spiritual and moral dimensions [4].

Do We Need Spirituality?
Ibn-e-Hazm (994-1064 AD), a famous Muslim polymath, remarked "I searched for a common goal amongst humankind, to which all would agree to strive for excellence. I have not found anything other than the vanquishing of anxiety" [5].  The decline in mental health has been dramatic in the past few decades, with rates of depression increasing from 1988-2007 in the US [6]. Furthermore, the incidence of suicide has increased almost 40% in the middle-aged population [6]. The results of a cross-cultural study indicated that while wealthy countries may score higher on a happiness scale, they scored lower than poor ones on perceived meaning in life [7].

Islamic prayers as form of spiritual purification

One of the core features of spirituality lies in man’s ability to extract meaning from the world. According to Ibn-e-Hazm, the ephemeral nature of the world drives a person into an existential crisis and the only way to achieve happiness is to return towards God Almighty [4]. In Islamic tradition, spirituality may involve pondering over the ayaat (signs) of the Almighty and getting inspired from them to lead a life of servitude. Signs such as the presence of trees may remind one of the temporary nature of life. The intricate features and behavior of birds and animals may inspire one to marvel over the accuracy, beauty, and wisdom of the creator. However, not all may interpret these signs in a spiritual context.

Imaging Spiritual Prayer
A preliminary study in 2015 attempted to uncover the neurophysiological effects of salah (prayer) [11]. Muslims performing salah and dhikr (remembrance) showed less frontal lobe activity (crucial in executive functioning). The study also compared subjects performing prayer with and without spiritual concentration (khushu). Those performing prayer in a ritualistic manner without a lot of spiritual focus did not display any changes in brain activity, while those performing prayer with more spiritual fervor showed less activity in the frontal lobe and more in the basal ganglia (involved in the reward system) and anterior cingulate gyrus (involved in mood) [11].

"Sabr" and Its Role in Depression
Positive psychology includes studies that correlate self-regulation and gratitude with a lower incidence of mental illness. Dr. Timothy Strauman has suggested clinical depression to be a consequence of self-dysregulation [8]. In Islamic tradition, this practice of self-regulation is called sabr and Ibn al-Qayyim (1292-1350 AD) describes it as restraining and building character [4]. He also argued that the past cannot be changed with sadness, but by contentment, gratitude, patience, and a firm belief that everything that happens occurs due to the will of God [9].
In Islam, there are numerous supplications to ward off anxiety and depression. One factor that might explain the reduction in anxiety and depression experienced by depressed people performing supplications could be due to supplication working as a spiritual therapy. This practice may produce neurochemical alterations that may decrease the need for pharmacological intervention (which does not undermine the efficacy of the latter) [10].

Source

The interesting aspect about supplication or du’aa is that it can be used as a powerful form of psychotherapy. The crux of many supplications is not a request, but rather admitting one’s helplessness and asking for the Almighty’s mercy. Surrendering oneself may offer liberty from the world and its tribulations because the individual leaves the matter in the hands of someone far more powerful than him or her [4].
Many supplications call on to the Almighty by using names and qualities that evoke feelings of awe. According to Jonathan Haidt, the reality of awe involves a two-step cognitive process: vastness (anything experienced by the mind that is larger than one’s self) and accommodation (upon experiencing vastness, the mind adjusts to assimilate new information) [12]. So, experiencing awe by calling on the Almighty provides contentment in times of adversity. Islam envisages trials and tribulations as opportunities for submitting to the Almighty and building character.
In Islam, spirituality is intertwined in different everyday rituals and serves to elevate not only the physical, but also the psychological well-being of an individual [13].

[1] http://bit.ly/2f3Sbe1
[2] Chuengsatiansup, Envir Impact Assessment Rev, 2003
[3] Chiesa and  Serretti,  Psycho Med, 2010
[4] http://bit.ly/2f4epfR
[5] Ibn Ḥazm. Akhlāq wa as-Sīr, p. 76.
[6] Smith, The power of meaning, p. 22.
[7] Oishi and Diener, Psycho Sci, 2013
[8] Strauman, Self and Identity, 2002
[9] Ibn al-Qayyim, Zād al-M’aād, vol 2. p. 325.
[10] Porto et al., J Neuropsychiatry & Clinical Neurosci, 2009
[11] Newberg et al., J Physiology, 2015
[12] Haidt and Keltner, Cognition & Emotion, 2003
[13] http://bit.ly/2hjgViR


By Zara Khan, MSc Student MedNeuro

This article originally appeared September 2017 in CNS Volume 10, Issue 3, Spirituality in Science

Spiritual Experience and the Default Mode Network

Ecstasy, awe, peace, the experience of the insight that "all is One", a sense of being "outside of time", the feeling that you experienced something sacred and holy, a gain of insightful knowledge experienced at an intuitive level…Trippy, right? Well, these are all elements from the Revised 30-item Mystical Experience Questionnaire [1] that is based on the seven dimensions of mystical experience, described by the British philosopher Walter Stace in 1960 [2]. This questionnaire has been used in the study of mystical experiences elicited by psychotropic drugs, like psilocybin and LSD (see article on page 6).

A Sufi in Ecstasy in a Landscap, source: Wikimedia Commons

Ceremonial use of hallucinogenic drugs dates back many thousands of years and is still part of many indigenous cultures of America (see also page 7). Although the reasons for using these substances in the ceremonies are varied, the goal is usually to facilitate the occurrence of a spiritual experience. Mystical or spiritual experiences occur also in the absence of drugs and have been reported inside and outside religious contexts. Meditation practices (page 5), for example, can lead to the experience of unity or pure awareness. For that reason, psychotropic drugs and meditative states have been used as models to study the neural correlates of mystical experience.

What Is the Default Mode Network?
Changes in the activity and connectivity of the default mode network (DMN) have been identified in studies where psychotropic drugs were used to elicit mystical experiences. This same network also shows changes during different meditation practices [3]. The default network is pretty much like the screen-saver of your brain. It is the network that gets active when you are not engaging in any activity that requires external focus, but rather just resting and letting your mind wander. The main components of the DMN are the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), the parahippocampal cortex (PHC) and the inferior parietal lobule (IPL) [4]. All these areas have a high density of serotonin 5-HT receptors, which are the targets of psychotropic drugs.

How attached are you to your ego?

What is interesting about this network is that it appears to be involved in the perception of self. Since it integrates information from different areas of the brain, it appears to be giving a constant update on self-awareness. The PHC, for example, stores episodic memory [5], while the mPFC and PCC overlap with social cognition and self-referential areas of the brain [6]. These areas are active when you are entertained in your own internal dialog, thinking about yourself or other people’s thoughts and intentions. The IPL, on the other hand, has been implicated in the processing of time perception [7]. Brain imaging studies using psilocybin, LSD or mescaline, as well as studies that looked at the brain of experienced meditators, found both a decreased activity and decreased connectivity of the DMN. Therefore, it is hypothesized that a decrease in the connectivity of the IPL with the rest of the DMN mediate the feeling of timelessness and spacelessness, while the decreased connectivity in the PCC and mPFC mediate the feelings of unity and ego dissolution [3].

On Cloud Nine?
It is always exciting when common neural correlates can be found for such a broad and subjective human phenomenon like the spiritual experience. However, the mystery of mystical experiences still remains. It is interesting, for example, that these transient experiences of ego dissolution come with long- (often life-long) lasting feelings of insight and positive behavioral changes. How can a momentary detachment from our persistent self-awareness give us the feeling of an encounter with an ultimate truth?

Spiritual Yoga, source: pixabay

Interestingly, the salvation or liberation from the self is a recurrent idea in many religions. To become part of the Absolute, reach Nirvana or be in God’s glory is the ultimate goal of the major religions of the world. Religious/spiritual practices aim to achieve this state through self-transformation and self-renunciation. Certain attitudes like the distancing from practical life and detachment from one’s and others’ needs and affections can facilitate the emergence of spiritual experiences [8]. What about you? Have you been close to a mystical experience?

[1] Barrett et al, J Psychopharmacol, 2015
[2] Stace, McMillan Press NY, 1960
[3] Barrett and Griffiths, Curr Topics Behav Neurosci, 2017
[4] Fox et al, PNAS, 2005
[5] Ranganath and Ritchey, Nat Rev Neurosci, 2012
[6] Shilbach et al, Conscious Cogn, 2008
[7] Battelli et al, Trends Cogn Sci, 2007
[8] Steinbock, Indiana University Press, 2007


by Silvina Romero Suárez,  PhD Student AG Infante

This article originally appeared September 2017 in CNS Volume 10, Issue 3, Spirituality in Science

Looking for God in the Brain: Neural Correlates of Religiosity

What makes humans religious? There must be something about our brain that makes religion a common denominator of humanity. Is there some area in our brain dedicated to the perception of the divine? Or maybe it is all just in our minds. Studying the neural correlates of religious behavior is no easy task, but some scientists have dared to address these questions.

To Believe Or Not Believe, Is That the Question?

How can we study the neural underpinnings of religion, this complex cultural phenomenon that affects many aspects of human behavior? Well, we can start by asking people if they believe in it. It is assumed that having faith is a prerequisite to comprehend and find relevance in religious activity. Whether or not faith and belief are the same thing is an ongoing debate in theology. Nevertheless, it is obvious that religious people believe that the specific word view provided by their religion is true. Therefore, an important area of research has focused on the neural correlates of what is happening in the brain when you judge a statement as true or false.
Interestingly, in a study in which subjects were asked to rate different kinds of statements as true, false or undecided, agreement generally activated the same brain area: the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) [1]. The vmPFC is strongly connected to the limbic system and incorporates emotional and reward associations to factual knowledge and reasoning tasks. This means that the act of agreeing with a statement, be it “2+2=4 “or “Jesus is the son of God”, activates the same area of the brain linked with positive emotions. In contrast, rejecting a statement as false differentially activated areas associated with feelings of disgust, such as the anterior insula, an area involved in the perception of pain and unpleasant odors.

A spiritual side to the brain?

In another study [2], the same group compared the brain activity of Christians and non-believers when agreeing or disagreeing with religious and non-religious statements. The answers (either true or false) to non-religious statements activated temporal areas of the brain associated with memory retrieval like the hippocampus, while the answers to religious statements activated similar areas of the brain found for disagreement in the previous study (likely from non-believers). In addition, the posterior medial cortex was activated, an area that is associated with the evaluation of self. That means that the participants were affirming their identity when agreeing or disagreeing with religious statements.

courtesy of Hector Salaza

Also interesting was the response to blasphemous statements like “the Biblical God is a myth”. The ventral striatum, a critical component of the reward system, was highly activated when believers rejected the blasphemy as false as well as when non-believers accepted the blasphemy as true. These findings make sense as we all know how Christians enjoy rejecting blasphemies while non-believers seem to take special pleasure in affirming them.

Talking To God – As a Friend
A key belief across religions is in the capacity to communicate with their God(s) through prayer. It was shown that praying, both through "official" religious texts and personal prayer, activates the reward system, specifically the dorsal striatum, which is associated with the expectation of future rewards and habit maintenance [3]. Interestingly, personal prayer activates areas of social cognition. In a study that compared personal prayer versus the Lord’s Prayer (an important part of Christian religious ceremonies) or making wishes to Santa Claus in committed Christians (who believed in God but not in Santa), it was found that personal praying differentially activates the temporoparietal junction, temporopolar region and the anterior mPFC. These three regions have been described as the “theory of mind” (ToM) areas, which are active when thinking about other people’s emotions and intentions [4]. This indicates that personal prayers imitate everyday social communication with real persons and provides God with intent and reciprocity (all the participants affirmed that God answered their prayer in some way). Indeed, it was found in another study that the activation of the ToM areas occurred before the activation of other non-ToM areas when accepting religious statements [5].
So far, no "God brain area" has been found. However, these findings tell us that religious people are no different than non-religious in the process of believing or disbelieving, which always comes with an emotional tone. In addition, it seems that religious thoughts are strongly linked to identity and social cognition. Interestingly, this supports theories from evolutionary psychology that religiousness might have emerged as a by-product of increasingly sophisticated ToM areas [6]. In other words: if there really is a God or other holy figure(s), it might just as well be that we believe in them "by (evolutionary) chance".

[1] Harris et al, Ann Neurol, 2008
[2] Harris et al, Plos One, 2009
[3] Schjoedt et al, Neurosci Lett, 2008
[4] Schjoedt et al, Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci, 2009
[5] Kapogiannis et al, Brain Connect, 2014
[6] Boyer, Trends Cogn Sci, 2003

by Silvina Romero Suárez,  PhD Student AG Infante

This article originally appeared September 2017 in CNS Volume 10, Issue 3, Spirituality in Science