Faster, Higher, Stronger, More Inclusive: The Paralympic Games

Welcome to one of the most exciting and chronically underrated international sporting events of the 21^st century: the International Paralympic Games. The 2018 Winter Paralympics will be held from Mar 8, 2018 – Mar 18, 2018 in Pyeongchang, South Korea.

This Paralympic games, originating in 1948 as a competition for wheelchair-using war veterans today have over 500 medal events, and host thousands of athletes from all over the world [1]. Today, the Paralympic Games occur in the same location as the Olympics, and are scheduled after the main events. To many, this may seem like an afterthought, but in reality is an incredible showcase of human diversity, athletic prowess, and the merits of inclusionary sport.

Meet Your Athletes
Who competes in the Paralympics? According to the official guidelines of the International Paralympic Committee, there are three major categories: visual, intellectual, and physical disabilities. The latter category is also broken down into 8 different subtypes, reflecting muscle function, limb loss/deficiency, and abnormalities in stature [1,2]. It should also be noted that the category of intellectual disability has strict limits about the age and nature of diagnosis. Some readers may be more familiar with the Special Olympics World Games, which are open to a broader range of participants [3].

PARTICIPATION IS BASED ON ABILITY

Up until the 1980s, eligibility for the Paralympics was determined purely by medical diagnosis, i.e. the reasons for a certain disability. Using these guidelines, a person who lost use of their arms due to a neurodegenerative disorder would not be able to compete with another individual whose arms were amputated [1]. However, today most sports include athletes based on ability, i.e. the degree to which an individual can perform an activity and compete fairly with others. The exception to these rules are sports for the visually impaired, where more rigid definitions and thresholds for vision loss are employed [1,2].

Let’s Play
Within most sports in the Paralympics, there are several sub-categories, reflecting different levels of ability. For example, table tennis has two major categories: players who compete using a wheelchair vs. standing. Within these two major categories, there are also subgroups, reflecting impairment in the playing arm, trunk stability, and other physical factor which can affect game outcome [4]. There is also a special class for athletes with an intellectual disability. These classes and categories differ from sport to sport, reflecting the demands of each discipline.
In addition, some sports in the Paralympics use ‘equalizing’ techniques to even the playing field for everyone involved. For example, in wheelchair rugby, individual players are given a score based on their abilities (use and dexterity of limbs, core stability, etc.). These scores are added up, and a team may not have players with more than a cumulative number of points on the field at any time [1].  On the other hand, goalball, a ball-throwing team sport for the visually impaired, requires that all players wear eye coverings to completely block vision. Thus, participants who are totally blind are still on the same level as those with milder visual impairments.

Paralympics, via Wikimedia Commons

Something for Everyone (Maybe Even You?)
The Paralympics thus include very diverse athletes, and a broad range of sporting opportunities. The most famous sports are generally those closest to events in the regular Olympics. For example, wheelchair basketball or Paralympic triathlon are close to Olympic contemporaries, with the addition of mobility-assisting devices such as wheelchairs or prosthetic devices. Other examples include wheelchair fencing, para-snowboarding, or para-equestrian events. However, some Paralympic sports are unique. These include goalball (see above) and boccia, a sport similar to boules or curling.
Interestingly, there is also significant participation of non-disabled athletes at the Paralympics. Indeed, these assistants/guides are an integral part of the team, and receive medals along with their disabled teammates. In boccia, for example, teammates can also help severely disabled athletes prepare for ball throws. Sighted athletes also play a major role in events for visually impaired participants, by running alongside them in track events, or steering a tandem bicycle during cycling races.
In recent years, unfortunately, the Paralympics have not been without controversy: as with other Olympic sports, there have been allegations of doping, along with accusations of ‘understating’ athletes’ level of disability [5]. But a lot of ongoing issues within (and at the fringes of) the Paralympics touch on much more troubling questions. How can the Paralympics be opened up to better funding, recognition, and respect? Should Paralympic athletes be allowed to compete directly against regularly-abled ones (think Oscar Pistorious)? It’s difficult to say exactly where these discussions will lead... but do tune in  Mar 8, 2018 – Mar 18, 2018, and see what all the excitement is about.

[1] http://bit.ly/1MD7zs1
[2] http://bit.ly/1SURPNP
[3] http://bit.ly/1XEy8xF
[4] http://bit.ly/23StO1x
[5] http://bit.ly/26az4jh

by Constance Holman, PhD Student AG Schmitz
this article originally appeared June 2016 in Volume 09 Issue 2 "The Sporty Brain"

The Olympic Games and Their Historic Values

The 2018 Olympic Winter Games in south Corea are coming up, an over two-week event offering an innumerable amount of sports. Who came up with the idea of the Olympics, though? The Olympics are always considered to be of Greek descent, but are they really?

The Ancient Games
The first Olympic Games were held in 776 BC in ancient Greece. The Games were held in the city of Olympia, at the foot of Mount Olympus, the mountain where the Greek Gods were said to live. This location was chosen, as the Games were one of the two great religious events celebrated in honor of the Greek Gods. Honor was what drove athletes of every city to participate as well. Winners were awarded with an olive wreath, the symbol of peace and distinction, and eternal prestige. In 394 AD, the Games were banned by the Roman emperor Theodosius I, who considered the Greek celebrations a pagan event [1].

Revival of the Games
For almost 1500 years no-one thought of this Greek festivity. But then the French baron Pierre de Coubartin started sharing his dream of reviving the Ancient Games. His lobbying resulted in the first Modern Olympic Games, held in Greece in 1896. The foundation of the Games was based on what de Coubartin said: ‘The important thing in life is not the triumph but the struggle, the essential thing is not to have conquered but to have fought well’. He founded the International Olympic Committee, which today still decides where the Olympics will be held and which sports will be a part of the Games [2]. In memory of its founder, the Pierre de Coubartin medal was invented and awarded to athletes who show true sportsmanship.

The olympic rings, source: http://bit.ly/1VpM2Gs

Symbols and Traditions
The Olympic motto ‘Citius, Altius, Fortius’ (Latin for ‘faster, higher, stronger’) exists since 1896. The symbol and flag, with the five colored rings intertwined on a white background, were designed in 1914. Both the motto and symbol come from Pierre de Coubartin. The symbol contains all the colors necessary to make the flags of all participating countries at the time. The rings resemble continuity and the human body [3]. New traditions have been added since - the relay carrying the Olympic fire from Greece to the host city of the Games, was started for the 1936 Berlin Games.

Sports
In its final days, the Ancient Games included 7 sports while in the very beginning the festival consisted purely of running events [1]. The first Modern Olympics consisted of nine sports, a number that has risen over the years and has been set to a maximum of 28 sports in the early 2000s. As a rule, a sport can only be admitted to the Summer Olympic program when it is widely practiced in at least 75 countries spread over four continents. Since 1936, the only changes in sports have been the dismissal of baseball and softball in the Olympics of 2008. The 2016 Olympics will see the addition of golf and rugby. The first Winter Games were organized in 1924, and always included skiing, skating, and ice hockey. The maximum number of sports in the Winter Games is seven, and to be included they need to be practiced by 25 countries, spread over three continents [4].

“IMPORTANT IS NOT THE TRIUMPH BUT THE STRUGGLE”

Olympism
The values and ideals of the Olympic Games are written down in the Olympic charter. The philosophy following these fundamental guidelines is called Olympism. The Olympic Movement has six pillars: Sport for All, Development through Sport, Women and Sport, Education through Sport, Peace through Sport, as well as Sport and Environment [1].
To conclude, the Modern Olympic Games, though based on the Greek Ancient Olympic Games, were invented by the French Pierre de Coubartin. The number and types of sports have changed over time, however, fundamental values of sportsmanship and honor have always been the basis of the Olympic Games. As for relations to Greece, one of the traditions of the Modern Games, carrying the Olympic fire from Olympia, Greece, to the host city of the current Games, hints that people still prefer a mythical touch to this event of great emotion and mighty athletes fighting for honor, as it was more than two eras ago in Greece.

Differences between the Ancient and Modern Games:

	Ancient Games	Modern Games
First edition	776 BC	1896 AD
Last edition	394 AD	ongoing
Inventor	'Greek Mythology'	Pierre de Coubartin
Number of sports	7	28
Participants	Free Greek men	Athletes from all over the world
Length	5 days	17 days
Philosophy	Mythology: offerings to Zeus	Olympism

[1] www.olympic.org 
[2] http://bit.ly/1XCUoH4
[3] http://bit.ly/1Q9JZ0S
[4] http://bit.ly/1SPJydY

by Judith Houtman, PhD Student AG Heppner
this article originally appeared June 2016 in Volume 09 Issue 2 "The Sporty Brain" 

High Impact: Consequences of Brain Injury in Athletes

Who has watched the Super Bowl last night? It had more than 111 million spectators. Besides watching a great sports game and an amazing halftime show, viewers were also witnessing series of brain concussions.

In football, players run like bulldozers, ramming everyone in their way. If the heads of two football players collide, the impact can reach up to more than 100 g [1], similar to forces in a car crash; a high school football player experiences about thousand blows to the head each season [2]!

Rising Awareness Since 2005
Football has been played since 1869, but awareness that repetitive concussions and sub-concussive hits to the head may have long term neurodegenerative effects has been rising only since 2005. It all started when Bennet Omalu autopsied the brain of Mike Webster, a four-time winner of the Super Bowl who died at the age 50. After retiring from a long football career, he developed depression, took drugs, had memory and concentration problems, as well as shaking hands.
Mike Webster’s brain showed amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the neocortex, reminiscent of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Omalu diagnosed chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) and hypothesised that head-to-head collisions were the cause [3]. With accumulating case studies, he also started making connections between repetitive mild brain injuries and depression. Later, a second group led by Ann McKee reported CTE in a larger cohort of post-mortem samples and confirmed many of Omalu's hypotheses [4].

Upon Impact, the Brain Hits the Skull
Helmets worn by the players only prevent skull fractures, but not internal damage; the brain hits the skull from the inside, referred to as “Brain Slosh”. The shearing of brain tissue leads to excessive toxic release of neurotransmitters, changes in glucose-metabolism, immune activation, and damage of blood vessels. This leads to secondary injury: breakdown of the blood brain barrier, disturbances in cerebral blood flow, formation of hematomas, neuroinflammation and so on.
The results are neurological symptoms during acute injury (dizziness, headache, nausea) which collectively persist in long-term deficits [5]. Neuronal damage and traumatic axonal injury further lead to accumulation of a-beta amyloid, tau and ApoE components [5]. Though sharing many similarities with AD, CTE-associated tauopathy differs with regard to the distribution: in CTE, tau is most prominent in superficial cortical layers and sulci, and tends to surround blood vessels [5].

by Jack Kurzenknabe, via flickr

Diagnostic Difficulties
The clinical phenotype of CTE is still incomplete, because most of the knowledge comes from post-mortem analyses and retrospective data. In the 158 autopsy cases analysed so far, 80% showed signs of CTE [6]. However it is difficult to asses how natural age-related changes, unrelated psychiatric illness, alcohol/drug use or coexisting cognitive impiarment contribute to the current picture of CTE; due to the long latency of CTE, co-morbidities are often present.
As of yet, there have been no established diagnostic criteria or in vivo biomarkers, meaning that CTE can only be diagnosed post mortem. But there is hope: Recent research developed means for premorbid identification of neurodegeneration in contact-sports athletes. NFL players with histories of mood and cognitive symptoms were subjected to positron emission tomography (PET) scans, which revealed that they had higher tau deposits than controls in all subcortical regions and the amygdala, areas known to produce tau deposits following trauma [7].

INCIDENCE AND PREVALENCE STILL UNKNOWN

However the incidence and prevalence of CTE are still unknown and, to date, there is no consensus regarding which intensity of head blows is tolerable. Large-scale prospective, longitudinal studies of concussed and non-concussed individuals are needed to provide a better picture.
To further advance the research on biomarkers and treatment approaches, a mouse model has been developed. It uses controlled closed-head impacts on unanaesthetized mice to recapitulate the spectrum of behavioural symptoms noted in patients diagnosed with CTE [8].

What are the Consequences?
Until recently, the National Football league (NFL) did not recognize these injuries as consequence of the sport itself. Rather, a common argument suggests that former players can’t cope with not being the focus of attention anymore, which is why they develop depression and take drugs, which then goes on to eventually cause neurodegeneration. Several former NFL players sued the league for allegedly misleading them about the risks of brain injury and one player even resigned from the NFL because he feared the consequences of the daily brain trauma.

Is This the End for Football?
Football has been played for 150 years. In 1905, 19 players died in a single season, most due to head and spine injuries. President Roosevelt, an avid football fan, ordered football coaches to reform the rules eliminating the more brutal features of the game. Since then, the sport has changed time and again. As a reaction to the current discoveries, President Barack Obama also expressed concern about college football players and the “problems with concussions and so forth” [9]. Football is just too big of a cult for this to be the end. New rules will hopefully be enforced to make the games safer for the athletes and still satisfying for fans.

[1] Funk et al, Ann Biomed Eng, 2012
[2] Beckwith et al, Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2013
[3] Omalu et al, Neurosurgery, 2005
[4] Stein et al,  Alzheimers Res Ther, 2014
[5] Chauhan, Restor Neurol Neurosci,  2014
[6] Gardner et al, Br J Sports Med,  2014
[7] Small et al,  Am J Geriatr Psychiatry, 2013
[7] Petraglia et al, J Neurotrauma, 2014
[9] Foer and Hughes, New Republic, 2013

by Claudia Willmes, PhD Alumna AG Eickholt / AG Schmitz
this article originally appeared June 2016 in Volume 09 Issue 2 "The Sporty Brain"

Interesting movies to watch:

• 1954: On the Waterfront
• 2015: Concussions

Runner’s High

When the sun finally comes out in spring it seems like everyone is going for a run.
It is well known that physical activity has positive effects on body and mind. And then there is the concept of "runner's high". What exactly is it? Bettina Schmerl uncovers the science behind it.

by skeeze via pixabay

When accomplishing enduring and physically demanding tasks our body has a built-in reward system. This phenomenon is known as runner’s high, and is described as a sudden euphoria, anxiolysis, relief of pain and an enormous sense of well-being arising after 1-2 hours of exercise [1]. For many years, it has been known that moderate physical activity has positive effects on health of body and mind [2]. This has influenced the clinical sphere as well: Patients with depression can receive huge benefits from physical activity [3].
However, for a long time researchers and physicians doubted the existence of a physical/chemical "runner’s high". How can mere exercise alter our neurochemistry in ways that prescription drugs often can't? This question was partially unravelled when a nuclear medicine diagnostic group from Munich found a candidate agent in runners' brains: endocannabinoids binding to opioid receptors in the prefrontal cortex and limbic system [4]. Their discovery also solved the longstanding mystery of neuroendocrine regulation.

Feeling Good From The Outside... In?
Endorphins (like epinephrine/adrenaline) are released into the peripheral vacular system with exercise, but how do these "feel-good" chemicals cross the blood brain barrier and cause euphoria? The secret is in the chemical nature of endocannabinoids: These lipophilic molecules have no trouble migrating through the barrier, on their way to reward centers in the prefrontal cortex and other areas [2].
Further investigation of the role of endocannabinoid system in animal models of depression and analgesia have identified the underlying molecular mechanisms, and provided a more definitive link between physical activity, and this type of signalling [1,2]. Could exercise, therefore, be the key to treating all kinds of physical and psychological ailments? Or can we mine its chemistry to get all of the benefits... minus the exertion? For now, we still have to keep moving! But stay tuned for new exciting benefits in this field in years to come!

[1] Fuss et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 2015
[2] Tantimonaco et al., Cell Mol Life Sci, 2014
[3] Dinas et al., Ir J Med Sci, 2011
[4] Boecker et al., Cereb Cortex, 2008

by Bettina Schmerl, PhD Student AG Shoichet
This article originally appeared June 2016 — Volume 09, Issue 02 in "The Sporty Brain"

Sport for Free or Cheap in Berlin

Looking to get fit, meet new people, or just mix up your daily routine? Yet, you have a a typical researcher’s salary? Look no further! Here we’ve compiled a rough guide to the many affordable sporting opportunities in Berlin…

Hochschulsport
The largest, most affordable, and certainly most varied source of sporting opportunities comes from Hochschulsport, a loosely organized body providing many classes run out of universities. And saying ‘varied’ is no exaggeration: there are the usual suspects, like yoga, basketball, or aerobics, but also the more exotic Japanese Stick Fighting or Hula Dancing. What’s more, many schools offer 1-2 day excursions, for example, to go sailing or hiking. Depending on the sport, classes run from about 20-100 euros per semester, slightly more for non-students. Each university runs their own Hochschulsport webpage, so finding a course that you want in an area that you can manage can be a challenge, but usually pays off…
HU: http://bit.ly/1WaTFPA
FU: http://bit.ly/1MCARqS
TU: http://bit.ly/1SoZ0Dx
HTW: http://bit.ly/1SoZ1r2

University Gyms
If team activities aren’t your first choice, and you prefer to get down to the basics, all major universities in Berlin have gyms that can be used by students and others at relatively low prices. The HU, for example, operates a small gym close to the Mensa, as well as one in Adlershof. The FU’s gym (‘KRAFTKLUB’) is less central, operating in the University center in Lankwitz. The TU’s gym, on the other hand, is located on the border between Moabit and Charlottenburg. All three gyms have membership for students between 15-30 euros/month, although the TU also requires an additional ‘Introduction Course’ (presumably to prevent lifting-related mishaps), which costs about 13 euros.
HU: http://bit.ly/1DMmU5g
FU: http://bit.ly/1VxspfE
TU: http://bit.ly/1r94pmC

(Practical) Hiking
All of these opportunities are great, but what about if you want to use your free time to get away from it all? Despite being a large city, Berlin has some wonderful hiking opportunities that may be closer than you think. The website “Wandebahnhöfe Brandenburg” has an extensive list of trails that can be reached by public transit, i.e. hiking from one train station to another. Another great set of trails is provided by the “66-Seen Wanderweg” (66 Lakes Trail), which makes a grand tour around Berlin, stopping at – you guessed it – plenty of lakes. Finally, there are a number of regions easily reached by regional trains which provide some beautiful scenery, and other great options for hiking, biking or boating. These include the Uckermark (approx. 1 hour North of Berlin), and the Märkische Schweiz, a National Park about 2 hours to the East.
Wandebahnhöfe Brandenburg : http://bit.ly/1U1Cpw8
66-Seen Wanderweg : http://bit.ly/26a5ESg
The Uckermark: http://bit.ly/1WArjyG
The Märkische Schweiz : http://bit.ly/1MCB7pX

Water Sports
What about sports for those who choose to leave dry land completely? If you want to get back to nature, Berlin has an incredible number of lakes, many with beaches and associated infrastructure (changing rooms, showers, etc.). Most are free, although some (i.e. the beaches at Wannsee) do charge an entry fee. And the best-known ones tend to get crowded on hot summer days. However, there are dozens to choose from, so there’s likely to be something for everybody!
Lakes of Berlin: http://bit.ly/20PsSt1
However, if it’s cold or you just want to do some serious laps, the city of Berlin also maintains a large network of public pools, both indoor and outdoor. Prices have gone up recently (a normal ticket costs about 6 euros), but there are ways to reduce the price, particularly by swimming at non-peak hours (10:00-15:00), buying tickets in bulk, or buying 45-minute passes. Hochschulsport also offers various water sports, so be sure to check the links above for other opportunities.
Pools in Berlin: http://bit.ly/1WArvOw

Free Sports
Of course, if you’re looking for a free way to get a good workout, Berlin hosts a hodegepodge of free sporting activities almost every day of the week. The website Gratis In Berlin hosts a listing of user-posted ideas, ranging from relaxation exercises to the enticing ‘Knight Training’. In addition, many studios or fitness courses offer a first session for free (aka ‘Schnuppertraining’), allowing you to shop around for the best option. Ditto for big-name fitness studio chains, although many have tricky contract clauses that can keep you coming back… whether you want to or not.
Free Sports in Berlin: http://bit.ly/1Vweje3

So whatever type of sport or activity you’re looking for, it’s likely that you can find it in Berlin at an affordable price. Have we missed anything? Has anyone ever undertaken some of the more peculiar options mentioned here and want to tell us about it (looking at you, knights!)? Be sure to let us know at cns-newsletter@charite.de.

by Constance Holman, PhD Student AG Schmitz
this article originally appeared June 2016 in Volume 09 Issue 02 "The Sporty Brain"

Exergaming: The TV is Your Trainer!

Winter is over and the sprouting leaves and chirping birds tell us it is time to get fit again. However, the weather may not yet be conducive to swimming, running or cycling outside for those of us who dislike the cold spring air. The alternative, then, is the fitness center. But is it the only alternative? What about exergaming? 

Exergaming is a portmanteau of “exercise” and “gaming”. It includes physically active videogames, such as aerobics, balance and stretching, as well as other recreational activities (e.g. tennis, bowling, dancing), and promises to increase the fun quotient of getting fit. The release (ten years ago!) of Nintendo Wii and Microsoft Kinect into the gaming market has been followed by the growing popularity of these innovative video games.

Source : Sergey Galyonkin, via Flickr

A study compared the effects of 30 minutes of brisk walking on a treadmill to playing Wii Fit "Free Run" on college students [1]. The results showed that the maximum heart rate and energy demand of the participants were significantly higher in the Wii Fit group than in the treadmill group. Moreover, the students perceived exercising with Wii Fit as more physically demanding, but rated their post-exercising well-being lower than when walking on the treadmill. The study concludes that the Wii Fit may be an alternative to traditional moderate-intensity exercises.

Exergames increase the fun quotient of getting fit

Further studies show that exergaming promotes physical activity, reduces body fat and a sedentary lifestyle [2, 3]. Even though pros acknowledge that virtual workouts may not be as efficient as real life intense exercise, and hence will not turn a couch potato into a “bikini body”, exergaming can certainly play a role in leading a healthy lifestyle!

[1]  Douris et al., J Strength Cond. Res, 2012

[2]  Lamboglia et al., J Obes, 2013

[3]  Höchsmann et al., Sports Med, 2015

by Valérie Boujon, PhD Student AG Endres

This article originally appeared June 2016 in Volume 09 Issue 01 "The Sporty Brain"

Sports That Didn't Make It To the Olypmics (This Year)

Are you are still looking for an exciting sport to keep you motivated to excercise more often? Why not go off the beaten path and pick up one of these exotic sports?

Does the thought of another soccer match on TV make you groan? Sick and tired of hearing about football players’ salaries, or who’s been kicked out of the hockey playoffs? Then boy, do we have the article for you! Here we present, without further comment, a selection of some of the weird and wonderful sports that people practice around the world…

Peretz Partensky via Wikimedia Commons

Buzkashi
This sport, also known as ‘kupkari’ is a beloved traditional activity in Central Asia (think the ‘-stans’). Though there is a great deal of regional variation, the basic idea is that two opposing teams, mounted on horseback, compete to collect a prize and bring it to their end of the field. The prize happens to be a dead calf or goat, which you typically cram under one leg to keep your hands free. This sport evolved from battle tactics and involves strategy, speed, and a whole lot of guts. For example, under some rules, you are freely allowed to whip both your horse and players from the other team. Serious business indeed. Plus, it’s the national sport of Afghanistan!

Martyn Gorman via Wikimedia Commons

Caber Tossing
This sport is an important component of traditional Highland Games, held yearly in Scotland and other countries. To win, the participant must pick up and throw a 6 meter long log (the caber), typically weighing about 80 kilograms. The distance thrown is unimportant, but in order to score well, the caber must flip in midair, and land as vertically as possible. The origins of this sport are rather mysterious. Other related sports from the Highland Games, such as Stone Put (similar to Shot Put), have found a home at the Olympic Games, but Caber Tossing has yet to join. Maybe in another 4 years!

Erlendaakre via Wikimedia Commons

Ferret-Legging
Unfortunately (?), this one is for men only. The object of the English sport of ferret-legging is to put a ferret down your pants – without underwear – and then see how long you can last without releasing it. Despite ferrets’ razor-sharp teeth and general excitability, the current world record is five hours and thirty minutes (side note: this was done for a fundraiser, which collected 1000 pounds, which seems pretty grim for the amount of biting likely involved). Tragically, Wikipedia lists it as a ‘dying sport’.

Ruben Wickenhäuser via Wikimedia Commons

Jugger
This sport is unique in this article for several reasons. First, it was actually inspired by a movie (‘The Revenge of the Jugger’, released 1989). Second, it is the only one with a thriving league in Berlin (jugger-berlin.de). Jugger consists of two teams, each of which compete to gain control of a ‘skull’, and bring it to the other end of the field. However, this is easier said than done, as all but one player are armed with an arsenal of foam-covered weapons. Getting hit with someone’s staff (or sword, or chain, etc.) causes a sort of time-out, and the more players are immobilized, the more difficult it is to move the skull around and score points.

michael warren via Flickr

Cheese Rolling
Once a year, the sleepy town of Cooper’s Hill, UK, comes alive with international athletes, striving to be faster than a wheel of cheese. The format is simple: a 9-lb (4 kg) wheel of double Gloucester cheese is released from the top of a hill, and about 1 second later, dozens of people scramble after it. The first person to catch the wheel gets to keep it (along with the bragging rights). It sounds easy enough, but consider that the cheese can reach top speeds of 112 km/h and the hill is steep and uneven, the race can be a recipe for disaster. In fact, due to growing safety concerns, the real cheese was replaced by a foam version in 2013.

Peter Werkmann via Flickr

Fierljeppen / Puttstockspringen
For something a little closer to home, consider Fierljeppen, which is practiced in northern Frisian, regions of the Netherlands and Germany. Here, competitors perform a type of pole vaulting using a special 6-13 meter pole with a flattened end. Step one, stick the pole flat-side down in a body of water. Step two, run towards the pole and jump onto it. Step three, climb to the top of the pole. Step four, use your body weight to tip the pole away from the body of water and jump off of it again. Between the sickeningly wobbly poles and uninviting bodies of water, it’s a heady combination. Suffice to say, the YouTube videos are worth a watch.


 

Cortney Paxton via Wikimedia Commons

Wife Carrying
Some people use sports as a way to get to know new people. Others use them as a way to get…closer to the ones that they love. The sport of wife-carrying, originating (and with a rabid fan base) in Finland and the Baltic States. The object in this sport is to carry your wife as quickly as possible through a 253.3 meter track with several obstacles in it. There are lots of other mystifyingly specific rules, such as that the only equipment allowed is a belt and a helmet, the wife must be over 17 years of age, each contestant is responsible for their own health insurance, and so on [7]. The World Championships of Wife Carrying are held yearly in Finland, where the winners receive the wife’s weight in beer as a reward.





by Constance Holman, PhD Student AG Schmitz
this article originally appeared June 2016 in Volume 09 Issue 2 "The Sporty Brain"

How Emotions Influence Sport Performance

If your New Year's resolution was to excercise more often because you are dissatisfied with your body shape, the following will be of interest to you! In this interview Darko Jekauc, professor of Sport-Psychology at the Charité Berlin tells us that negative emotions cannot drive a long-term fitness regimen.

Source: Charis Tsevis viaFlickr

Professor Jekauc, what is the focus of your research?
The main focus of my research is on the role of affective processes in sport and exercise. In the last five decades, a great deal of progress has been made in understanding how cognitive processes influence participation in sport. Currently, there are many cognitive models that try to explain why some people are more physically active than others. These models say that you will become physically active if the perceived benefits (e.g. health) are higher than the costs (e.g. time or money) invested. However, human nature means that people do not always act so rationally. In reality, they do not choose the behavioural option with the best cost/benefit ratio. People act rather emotionally. Although it seems obvious that emotions influence our behaviour and actions in every aspect of our life, including sport, it was neglected for a long time in psychological research. Today, we are still living in the “cognitive age in psychology”: Cognitive processes play the main role, and emotions are seen as something negative that should be banished in order to act logically. But we cannot make our emotions disappear; they are a part of our life. I think we should learn to manage them accordingly, and this is what we are investigating now: How can we learn to influence our emotions and use them to our advantage in sport?

Which emotions are important to keep us motivated during sport?
The emotions important for our motivation to exercise depend on the behavioural stage. Negative emotions like dissatisfaction with our body shape or bad health status motivate people to start exercising. They are important in the stage of behaviour acquisition. However, negative emotions are not enough to make people continue practicing a sport for a longer period of time. At some point other emotions override these existing negative ones and people lose their motivation to continue doing sport. For example, stress at work or a family dispute might induce negative emotions which have at that moment higher urgency than dissatisfaction with one’s own body. This is the reason why many people drop out after a few weeks of exercise. 

NEGATIVE EMOTIONS CANNOT 

DRIVE A LONG-TERM FITNESS REGIMEN

 

Instead, it is important to have positive emotions during exercise like enjoyment in order to maintain physical activity. I think this aspect is important for sports instructors and trainers. They should learn how to induce positive emotions during training in order to keep up the number of participants. For example, in a weekly gymnastics course after five sessions there are only 70% of the participants remaining. After 10 weeks, only 30% participants still come to this course. What happens to all those people that drop out? Why don’t they come anymore? This is one question which we try to answer. What roles do emotional factors play for maintenance of physical activity? How can we induce enjoyment during physical activity in order to get people to continue doing sport?

Are there specific sports that are especially susceptible to the influence of emotions?
I can’t say that there are particular sports in which you have more emotions than others. Regarding the athletes, however, there are huge interindividual differences: Some athletes experience strong emotions, others don’t, and others have effective control over their emotions. In competitive sports, we always have experiences of winning and losing. That is why we always have to productively deal with these emotions.
Regarding different types of sports, we always have different kinds of emotion which can emerge. In a football stadium, sometimes you can hear and feel the enthusiasm spreading over the crowd. Spectators sing, shout and applaud to support their own team and therefore the spectators can strongly influence the athletes. In other sports, athletes don't show their emotions although they perceive them because it is not necessary to show them for their type of sport.

I was very struck by the 7:1 victory of Germany over Brazil in the 2014 soccer world championship. Did the Brazilian team lose because they were emotionally unstable?
On the one hand, the Brazilian team was playing in its own country and public expectations were very high, so they had to deal with a lot of pressure. I don’t know if every player can deal with this kind of pressure. On the other hand, the German team had a lot of self-confidence after reaching the semi-final. After they shot the first goal, they appeared to be in a stage called “the zone”. It is like surfing on a wave of positive emotions. They used these positive feelings to further boost their performance. In general, success breeds success by fostering positive emotions which trigger even more success. It is a real skill to handle emotion in such a way that one may perform better in competition. Sometimes, it is favourable to have strong positive emotions to mobilize energy and to improve performance in competition. However, emotions represent a double-edged sword which can easily shift to become negative and turn against you. Handling emotions in a productive way is definitely a competitive advantage.

How can I, as an athlete, use my emotions as an advantage during a competition?
First of all, I want to mention that the best strategy for handling emotions depends on the kind of sport you do. For example, in archery, you need a lot more tranquillity and concentration than in American football, where you primarily need a lot of strength. When you are angry in American football, it might improve your performance because you have more power and energy which you can use to push away your opponents. In archery -a sport with high precision- your emotional level should be as low as possible to keep your concentration and to achieve high accuracy. Furthermore, effectively dealing with emotions is highly dependent on the athlete’s personality. Therefore, each athlete should find his or her own way to deal with emotions.

How do you train to use your emotions during competition?
An effective strategy we are using is mindfulness training. Mindfulness training helps us to focus on the present moment, and to perceive what is going inside of ourselves. In this way, we can improve our awareness of what is happening in the moment. When I recognize that an emotion is developing inside of me, I can decide whether this emotion is purposeful or not. We can decide how we deal with this emotion. In many cases, when we are not aware of our emotions we get overrun by them. We notice that we are angry or afraid when it is too late, and the damage has already been done. Therefore, we use mindfulness training to learn to recognize our emotional states at an early stage. However, mindfulness is not easy to implement when you have never practised it before. During a competition, we have a lot of thoughts coming into our mind and we tend to get lost in them. When emotions are running high our thoughts tend to speed up and we get distracted from what we are doing. Therefore, we lose control over the situation.

FOCUS ON YOUR BREATHING TO REDUCE AROUSAL

For athletes without experience in mindfulness, one simple exercise to overcome this is to observe your breathing for some time. This seems very simple but it is challenging to maintain concentration. However, mindfulness, like sport, is a skill which can be improved by regular practice.

Is it possible to work with your emotions to achieve better or faster recovery after sport or injury?
It is well proven that positive thoughts and emotions have a positive effect on recovery. If you imagine a situation where you feel well and healthy, the body has the impulse to achieve this state and start the recovery process. Our emotions and thoughts are closely correlated with one another. Negative emotions trigger negative thoughts, and this creates a vicious circle from which it is difficult to escape from. On the other hand, when we come into the “zone” that I talked about earlier, when you have positive emotions and everything works well, this triggers more positive emotions. Consequently, it can also influence recovery and regeneration.

Source: “Piled Higher and Deeper” by Jorge Cham

Emotions are also used from coaches, either in a "fierce" or "friendly" style. What do you think is the better approach, or does this depend on individual preferences?
I think this depends on the athlete's personality. As a coach, whatever you say always has greater impact on your athletes if you say it with emotion. In the animal kingdom communication works mainly via emotions; this is actually similar to humans. We receive a lot of information via gestures and body language. It’s not only what we say, but also how we say it.

I've learned that an athlete needs to learn to be master of his or her own emotions, but are there also external factors which influence how an athlete can control and use them ?
Of course there are external factors which also play an important role: Emotions can spread from spectators to athletes and one athlete can transmit his or her emotions to others. Coaches or significant others can also influence the emotions of athletes. Non-social cues can also play a role. In a quiet environment, for example, you generally have more concentration and lower levels of emotion.

Do you have some "emergency" advice to control and use your emotions during a competition?
The simple trick is to just take a deep breath. If you concentrate on your breathing for a moment, your arousal levels and intensity of emotions will be reduced and you may get distracted from the actual problems that you are facing. The process of rumination, or over-thinking, is temporarily stopped. This helps you to see the situation from a different point of view and contemplate different aspects of the competition. Taking a moment to stop and breathe is a very simple exercise, but it works! Plus, it only takes 5 to 10 seconds.

Thank you for this interview!

This interview was conducted by by Claudia Willmes, PhD Student AG Eickholt / AG Schmitz
this article originally appeared June 2016 in Volume 09 Issue 2 "The Sporty Brain"

*This interview has been edited for length and clarity.