Resisting Temptations and the Power of Suggestion

Have you ever struggled to resist a delicious chocolate bar while you were on a diet? Or have you tried to resist drinking the sixth tequila shot which you knew would make you feel miserable the next day? Resisting temptations is difficult. However, a recent study published in Social Cognitive & Affective Neuroscience indicates that there are methods to help you.

Our research team at the Charité hypothesized that hypnotic suggestions and/or autosuggestions (giving suggestions to oneself) may be able to reduce the attractiveness of unhealthy temptations, or more specifically, snack food.
We invited 32 participants who were responsive to hypnosis and assigned them to two groups. One group was hypnotized by a professional hypnotist, while the other group used autosuggestion. Participants in the hypnosis group were suggested to experience disgust whenever they would encounter a color cue after hypnosis, namely green (half of the participants) or blue (the other half). They were further suggested that they would experience disgust only regarding specific snacks, namely either sweet snacks (half of the participants) or salty snacks (the other half). This was done to assess if hypnosis can target specific stimuli, rather than merely inducing a general feeling of disgust. In the autosuggestion group, participants were instructed to make the disgust association (regarding specific snacks and the cue color) on their own, and they were given as much time for this as the hypnotized participants. Afterwards, participants entered a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scanner and carried out a virtual auction on sweet and salty snacks (e.g. Mars bars, Snickers bars). These snacks were shown on a background that was blue for half of the time and green for the rest of the time.

Experimental procedure and the paradigm used in the scanner. Source: Ludwig et al, Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci, 2013

We found that participants of both groups were less willing to pay for the snacks targeted by hypnosis or autosuggestion (salty or sweet) when shown on the relevant cue color (blue or green background, depending on the participant). Surprisingly, there were no behavioral differences between the hypnosis and the autosuggestion group. Also, on a self-report questionnaire, participants of both groups indicated that they had indeed experienced disgust regarding the targeted snacks. However, participants subjected to hypnosis described the effects as more automatic, physical, and genuine (not merely simulated) compared to participants who had used autosuggestion. Finally, the fMRI data analysis showed that the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) was activated less when participants (in both groups) made decisions about targeted snacks shown on the cue color compared to the other snacks. The vmPFC is known to correlate with the perceived attractiveness of stimuli. Thus, the fMRI data are consistent with the idea that the targeted snacks were indeed perceived as less attractive than the other types of snacks following the interventions. Interestingly, hypnosis affected vmPFC activation more than autosuggestion.

Effects on VMPFC were stronger in the hypnosis group compared to the autosuggestion group. Source: Ludwig et al, Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci, 2013

In sum, both hypnosis and autosuggestion can decrease the attractiveness of unhealthy snacks. Moreover, neural and self-report evidence indicate that hypnosis has stronger effects than autosuggestion. Future studies should test the longevity of these effects and should determine whether the differences in brain activation and self-report between the groups are relevant for real-life behavior. The next time you want to resist chocolate, take some time to relax and suggest to yourself that it is disgusting - you might be surprised how powerful a suggestion can be.

Reference

Ludwig et al, Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci, 2013

By Dr. rer. nat. Vera Ludwig, Postdoctoral Fellow, Divison of Mind and Brain Research at the Charité.
this article was originally published 2014 in CNS Volume 7, Issue 1, Mind and Brain 

Imaging Language and Communication

Modern Imaging Techniques Reveal the Complexity of Language  

The classic brain areas associated with language – Broca’s and Wernicke’s area – have been identified from patients with brain lesions (see page 8). It is plausible that other regions, such as the auditory cortex for hearing and the visual cortex for reading, also play a role in communication. However, in recent years, imaging has contributed a great deal to a more network-like understanding of the representation of language and communication in the brain and demonstrated its complexity.

via Wikimedia Commons

Different Imaging Modalities 

Imaging studies with combined functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) have shown that the arcuate fascicle directly connects Broca’s with Wernicke’s area [1]. This fiber bundle is thought to represent the dorsal pathway of language. It connects auditory cortices to parietal and frontal lobe networks, and seems to mediate between hearing sounds and articulation of words [2]. Furthermore, a second pathway exists and is represented by the extreme capsule [1]. This ventral stream projects from auditory cortices to the temporal lobe. It is thought to be the connection between hearing sound and understanding the meaning of spoken words [2].

Resting-state fMRI studies demonstrate that the language network is even more extended. MRI signals in Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas have a positive correlation with signals in neighbouring prefrontal, temporal, and parietal regions, but also with subcortical structures like the basal ganglia [3].

Studies on communication and language have also been performed using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). This technique allows subjects to communicate in a natural environment. NIRS has proven useful in examining the brain activity of infants to get an insight into how we learn to speak [4].

It seems that with every fMRI, PET or NIRS study conducted on the subject, it is proven further that the language network is more extended and complex than previously thought.

Clinical Applications 

This more detailed knowledge of the extent of the language network also has direct clinical applications. Brain surgeries on tumor or epilepsy patients need to avoid areas that can affect the ability of the patients to speak. The Wada test, which “switches off” one cerebral hemisphere with barbiturates, was formally the gold standard to determine the dominant hemisphere for language production. Modern imaging methods, like fMRI or navigated transcranial magnetic stimulation (nTMS) can map the individual brain areas involved in language much more precisely and in much more detail. Therefore, these methods are increasingly being used for preoperative planning [5,6] and are considered an adequate replacement for the Wada test [7].
Furthermore, imaging studies are a great tool to help us understand how functional recovery takes place after stroke or surgery, and to what extend other structures can take over functions essential for communication [1]. This further adds to understanding of the language network.

Social Aspects of Communication 
Not only have the structural components of the language network been analyzed with imaging, the social aspects of communication have also taken center stage in recent years.
A study conducted with simultaneous MRI scanning of close female friends showed that neuronal coupling happens during live verbal communication about autobiographical events. The time course of neural activity in language areas was coupled with the time course of neural activity in the friends’ auditory cortex, representing very basic reciprocal mechanisms of social interaction [8]. So-called hyperscanning – the parallel scanning of two subjects who can interact during the session – is a great way to study brain activation during live social interaction.
However, in a social context it is not only the literal meaning of words and sentences that have to be processed, but also the intended meaning of the speaker. This is especially true for metaphors and sarcasm. Differences in brain activations during communication with metaphors and sarcasm have been investigated with fMRI. Interestingly, brain activation related to metaphors was found in the head of the caudate. Sarcasm elicited activation in the left amygdala, which probably represents the processing of the speaker's emotional status [9].
All in all, imaging has given us much insight into the complexity of the language network and its use in social context. To know how the brains of healthy participants function during communication is important to understand conditions such as autism or schizophrenia and has great clinical implications in rehabilitation and surgical planning.

[1] Saur and Hartwigsen, Arch Phys Med Rehab, 2012   

[2] Friederici and Gierhan, Curr Opin Neurobiol, 2013

[3] Tomasi and Volkow, Mol Psychiatry, 2012

[4] Rossi et al, Brain & Language, 2012

[5] Mahvash et al, Clin Neurol Neurosurg, 2014

[6] Picht et al, Neurosurgery, 2013

[7] Papanicolaou et al, Epilepsia, 2014

[8] Spiegelhalder et al, Behav Brain Res, 2014
[9] Uchiyama et al, Cortex, 2012

by Ann-Christin Ostwaldt, PhD Student, AG Fiebach
this article originally appeared 2014 in CNS Volume 7, Issue 4, Communication and Social Media 

Berlin's Neuromarketing Startups

Berlin is known as a startup factory, with many young businesses cutting their teeth here. With neuromarketing perhaps one of the youngest fields on the block, it is not surprising that it is well represented in this city.

Apple Emotions
When most people hear the term “neuro”, a pretty image of a brain with colourful patches pops into mind. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI), otherwise known as “brain scanning”, has become the poster child for all things neuro, representing neuroscience's sexy side in the public eye. That is marketing appeal just waiting to be tapped, and that is exactly what the startup INCORE has done.

 Apple users elicit an emotional reaction to the brand unlike samsung users

They have capitalized on the appeal of fMRI by offering it as a neuromarketing service, proposing that market research on consumers inside the scanner will lead to a deeper understanding of how brands are perceived. With Dr. Simone Kühn of the Max Planck Institute at the scientific helm, they claim to “measure the unconscious emotional reactions of targ[et] groups” via fMRI [1]. They have done studies on brand perception of international giants such as Coca-Cola and Apple, with results suggesting that Apple users have an emotional reaction to the brand which is absent from Samsung users. Obviously, this is no cheap service, but perhaps the appeal of brain scanning will be strong enough to draw business in.

Measuring "Unconscious Emotions"?

FMRI might be prohibitively expensive for most companies, but there are cheaper alternatives out there. Berlin seems to have an abundance of attention-modeling startups, offering scientifically grounded analysis of media design, such as websites, to improve layout and maximize profits. Attention determines where we look and for how long, and companies are obviously keen to get this right when they are trying to communicate with a customer via a webpage or advertisement. 
One way to measure attention is with eye tracking. By directly measuring where users look, you know what has grabbed their attention and what has not. The startup Emolyzr does just this, in combination with other measurements such as electromyography and skin conductance. Specifically, Emolyzr claims to measure the “unconscious emotions” of users, although what exactly they mean by this is not clear [2].

SMI Eye Tracking, via flickr

 Attention: With or Without Humans?

Although cheaper than fMRI, eye tracking is also not without its costs. Another startup, Attensee, replaces eye tracking with mouse exploration [3]. Users are presented with a blurred version of the website, and as they move their mouse cursor around the screen a small portion of content is revealed. This is cheaper and faster than eye tracking, while still returning real participant data.
However, in the dog-eat-dog world of marketing, it is all about money and speed, and the startup EyeQuant attempts to push both of these to the bottom line by removing the participant altogether [4]. Instead of relying on human subjects to indicate what is attention grabbing, they implement a fully computational saliency and attention model, reducing both time required for a result (allegedly within seconds) and potentially cost as well. Of course, the highly complex model behind EyeQuant is itself validated against human eye tracking data.
But even so, modeling human behavior is a tricky business, and perhaps the main criticism of the method is that it is not always accurate (a claim that Attensee makes explicitly) [3]. However, with such speed and potential cost efficiency, and with saliency godfathers Prof. Laurent Itti and Prof. Christof Koch on the team, it is not surprising that Google has been a client already.

Check Your Brain App
Although not strictly neuromarketing, I could not help including the nascent startup BrainModes here. BrainModes aims to make neurofeedback available to the general public via an app. On their website, they state:
“We are developing the BrainModes app to visualize the brain activity of the user measured with BCI (brain-computer interface) devices, even if they have no prior experience. The visualization of brain activity is based on state-of-the-art computational neuroscience and brain imaging: a novel technology to provide detailed visualizations of brain activity based on sparse information collected with brain computer interface technology.” [5]
The idea is incredibly cool, and although they do not go into details about just what types of BCIs they will be working with, the notion that anybody could get a glimpse into the workings of their own brain via an app is tantalizing. It is unclear from their website whether the app will be commercial or not, but the team also appears to have been involved in some pretty wacky art installations involving neurofeedback. You can see a video of one of their previous projects here.


[1] http://www.incore-berlin.com/
[2] http://emolyzr.de/  
[3] https://www.attensee.com/
[4] http://www.eyequant.com/
[5] http://www.brainmodes.com/

by James Kerr, MSc Student, International Experimental and Clinical Linguistics
this article originally appeared December 2015 in "Money on My Mind"